BIOLOGY I REALLY NEED HELP WITH THESE QUESTIONS PLEASE IF Y

BIOLOGY - I REALLY NEED HELP WITH THESE QUESTIONS PLEASE. IF YOU THINK ITS EASY PLEASE HELP ME!

In the 1920\'s to the 1980\'s, what was the source for insulin used for treating diabetes? What is the source for insulin after 1990? What was the major reason that chemical synthesis of insulin was not a good alternative to using bovine insulin to treat diabetes in the 1960\'s and 1970\'s? Name the person who received the Nobel Prize in 1958 for discovering the structure of human insulin. For what discovery did the same person received a second Nobel Prize in 1980? What are the fundamental four steps used in cloning a DNA fragment in bacteria for mass production? What company was the first to patent a process for production of human DNA using recombinant DNA technology? To what company was this patent licensed to for production and marketing of human insulin? Name two common methods used currently to deliver insulin into the bloodstream of diabetic patients.

Solution

Since the early 1980’s, two methods have been used to make human insulin from nonhuman sources. One method involves the use of enzymes to convert pork insulin into human insulin by altering the one amino acid that is different. The second and more widely used method uses recombinant DNA technology. In this process, bacteria or yeast cells are genetically altered to produce human insulin in large amounts. Human insulin produced by genetic engineering is purer than other forms of insulin because it is not combined with other proteins that can also trigger allergic responses. Pork and beef insulin are no longer being sold in the United States

In 1996 the Food and Drug Administration approved modified human insulin called Humalog, which was specially developed to be active very quickly after injection.

2. The major reason that chemical synthesis of insulin was not a good alternative to using bovine insulin to treat diabetes in the 1960\'s and 1970\'s

When looking at the enzyme in more detail, the sequence of porcine (pig) insulin and human insulin is almost identical, but not exactly--it differs by one amino acid. Bovine (beef) insulin is different by three amino acids from human. This is why people were able to use insulin from cattle in the 1920s, although they didn\'t know it at the time

3. The primary structure of insulin was determined by British molecular biologist Frederick Sanger. It was the first protein to have its sequence is determined. He was awarded the 1958 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work.

In 1977 Sanger and colleagues introduced the \"dideoxy\" chain-termination method for sequencing DNA molecules, also known as the \"Sanger method\". This was a major breakthrough and allowed long stretches of DNA to be rapidly and accurately sequenced. It earned him his second Nobel prize in Chemistry in 1980, which he shared with Walter Gilbert and Paul Berg.

4. The fundamental four steps used in cloning a DNA fragment in bacteria for mass production are:-

(A) Isolation of target DNA fragments (often referred to as inserts)

(B) Ligation of inserts into an appropriate cloning vector, creating recombinant molecules (e.g., plasmids)

(C) Transformation of recombinant plasmids into bacteria or other suitable host for propagation

(D) Screening/selection of hosts containing the intended recombinant plasmid.

5. Stanford University applied for a US patent on recombinant DNA in 1974, listing the inventors as Stanley N. Cohen and Herbert W. Boyer; this patent was awarded in 1980. The first licensed drug generated using recombinant DNA technology was human insulin, developed by Genentech and Licensed by Eli Lilly and Company.

6.       Insulin is administered by two routes of delivery: